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Posted September 8, 2006
Evaluation of Polygyny
(Polygamy) & Female Circumcision
By Siahyonkron Nyanseor,
QMRP
&
James Mamoo Coleman, MD
Introduction
As you may be aware,
it is a daunting task to search for and find appropriate answers to
difficult issues regarding cultural traditions. The first difficulty is for
the researcher to be fair and objective or, at least, do his/her utmost to
be so - in attempting to put him/herself in the position of those who
practice a particular cultural tradition. However, this has not been the
case. Usually, the cultural practice is condemned, without knowing anything
about it, and the evaluation is based entirely on the researcher’s
ethnocentric orientation, which is not only subjective, but also biased and
a blatant violation of cultural relativism.
It is against his
backdrop that the “Evaluation of Polygyny (Polygamy) and Female
Circumcision” is conducted. As such, absolute objectivity here is not
possible, since it is beyond our limited capacity. All we have done through
this research is to approach these sensitive subject matters with respect
for those who are affected by the practice, and at the same time to
understand the position of those who attached high premium to these
traditional cultural practices.
According to a prominent
African scholar, Professor Ali A. Mazrui, every human society, culture
serves as the catalyst responsible for establishing the behaviors that
regulate the action of those that live in a society. He went on to say,
“Culture provides lenses of perception, the way of looking at reality, a
world view; culture provides standards of evaluations; what is good and what
is evil; what is legitimate and what is illegitimate are rooted in criteria
provided by culture. Culture conditions motivation; what motivates
individuals to act or to refrain from acting, what inspires individuals to
perform well or to really exert themselves, is partly inspired by cultural
factors”. In addition, “Culture is the medium of communication; the
communicative aspects of culture range from language in the literal sense to
physical gestures and modes of dress. “Culture provides a basis of
stratification, a pecking order in society. Status, rank and class are
partly the outcome of a cultural” (Ali A. Mazrui, The African
Condition. New York: University of Cambridge, 1980, pp. 47-48). On the
other hand, most anthropologists view human cultures in terms of cultural
relativism, the concept that all cultures are orderly systems within which
customs and institutions are rationalized in their own terms. Thus, customs
and behaviors that are considered sinful in one culture may be totally
acceptable, even praised, in another. For example, the Hindu’s belief
prohibits the consumption of beef and guarantees special treatment of cows.
It is viewed as a functional and rational behavior, not only within the
religious tradition of the sacred cow, but also in terms of the usefulness
of the cow as a traction animal and as a source of dung for fertilizer and
fuel. Human cultures sometimes contain customs and values counter to human
welfare. Classic examples are slavery, headhunting, cannibalism, racism, and
legal segregation, just to name a few (Charles Wagler, “Culture” Grolier
Interactive Multimedia Encyclopedia Compact Disc. Grolier Interactive Inc.,
1997).
First, let’s look at the definition of
tradition. Merriam Webster Dictionary defined Tradition as any established
customary pattern of thought or action – the handing down of beliefs and
customs by word or mouth or by example without written instruction. Overtime
when culture change, customs and values sometimes run counter to human
welfare and tradition.
The problem people of
color encounters (i.e., Africans, Asians and Native Americans, etc.) from
Europeans/European Americans, some assimilated Africans and missionaries
from these areas is, they use different set of yardstick to evaluate these
cultural practices of people of color. Most of the time, their assessments
are based on European/American and in some cases, Arab cultural hegemonies.
And if the practice is not of European/American origin, than that practice
is viewed as WRONG or SATANIC. What this approach does is, it creates
widespread misunderstanding and insensitivity to other people’s culture.
Similar practice
takes place when one engages in the discussion of polygamy (polygyny: one
husband and several wives). Polygynists are often accused of being the sole
benefactor in such matrimonial arrangement. One such argument was made in an
article: “The Cock And The Gun: Liberia's Continuing Legacy Of Violence And
Male Domination”, written by Stephanie C. Horton. It was published in the
July/September 1998 Edition of The Perspective. The approach and
manner in which the author discussed polygamy appeared as if she was upset
with former President Charles Taylor for proposing that, “all the ethnic
groups in Liberia must intermarry with one another, and he would set the
example by marrying a Mandingo woman”, while he’s already married. See
http://www.theperspective.org/cock.html.
In her disagreement
or anger if we may call it that, she went on to denigrate an entire cultural
institution as well as men in general as the ONLY benefactors of polygynous
relationship. She avers:
“…This is clearly the
very first time in Liberian history that an African custom has been
glorified in this way from the high office of the presidency. By proposing
to legitimize polygamous marriage, Mr. Taylor has not only caused a stir,
but has also created the condition for potentially explosive conflict
between the Christian church and traditional custodian of this age-old
African custom”. In support of this line of reasoning, she went on to quote
from the book, The Stillborn, by a Nigerian author name, Zaynab Akali.
“…The three major
reasons for polygamy, as offered by African feminist Awa Thiam are (1) the
exploitation of women for free labor, women as food producers (2) sexual
license for men, and (3) "commercial" use of women.
“Thiam sees all these as
linked to the practices of female genital mutilation (sexual and
reproductive control by torture), forced marriages and child brides (of
financial and social benefit to the family and not necessarily the woman).
Nevertheless, the higher divorce rate among illiterate, rural and low income
African women provides an often overlooked understanding of traditional
women's response to their plight, and refutes the current interpretation and
sociological falsification of the African women as helpless, powerless
victim, always compliant in their own oppression”.
In her attempt to vent
her disagreement with Charles Taylor’s position, serious misrepresentation
of her analysis abounded. For example, “…This is clearly the very first time
in Liberian history that an African custom has been glorified in this way
from the high office of the presidency. By proposing to legitimize
polygamous marriage…”, she argued. Evidently, she failed to realize that
polygamous marriages were LEGAL in Liberia before Charles Taylor was born.
Also, she is un-substantiating in the proceeding statement: “…the higher
divorce rate among illiterate, rural and low income African women provides
an often overlooked understanding of traditional women's response to their
plight, and refutes the current interpretation and sociological
falsification of the African women as helpless, powerless victim, always
compliant in their own oppression”. While this could be the case in
Nigeria, Nigeria does not represent the entire continent of Africa. Liberia
has had many women in leadership positions including African Liberians women
(native/indigenous). The recent election of Madam Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf as
the first woman elected president in Africa says a lot regarding the respect
that Liberian men have for Liberian women.
As a matter of fact, in
Liberia, “the higher divorce rate is not among illiterate, rural and low
income African women”. It is the other way around – among the assimilated
Western-educated Liberian women. This is altogether another subject for
discussion.
On the same subject,
Saye R. Gbetu published in the September 13, 2001 Edition of The
Perspective an article titled: “A Case Against Legalizing Polygamy”.
Gbetu wrote, “…Reference to African cultural values in an August 14,
2001 Inquirer newspaper article, ‘At 51st Session: Legislature Faces
Tough Challenge,’ apparently in an attempt to justify or garner support for
legalizing polygamy in Liberia portrays culture as though it is a static
phenomenon. Culture, as a matter of fact, is always in a state of flux. It
is not cast in concrete! As a society grows intellectually, materially, and
morally, its culture is constantly being created, recreated, and sifted.
Thus, in proportion to their intellectual, material, and moral development,
a people continually evaluate their culture. They not only weed out the bad
and keep the good, but also pass on the good to the next generation”.
In the article, Gbetu
made some good points, but his approach to the issue is similar to that of
Horton; he responded to Taylor’s proposal with anger. The problem with
writing with anger is, you tend to make serious mistakes, and that’s what
Gbetu did.
For example, Gbetu
wrote, “I, too, am an African. More importantly, I relish African values.
However, I consider legalizing polygamy an asinine and farcical display of
African values. If, for Liberian men, the legalization of polygamy is an
attempt to fulfill the promise of ‘milk’ and ‘honey’ during the 1989
‘Revolution’ or ‘DeathVolution’, what about Liberian women? What about their
‘milk’ and ‘honey’”?
What Gbetu failed to
realize is, prior to the arrival of the settlers from North America,
polygyny (polygamy) was the legal form of marriage among the majority of the
indigenous population. The issue we find with both articles is, they talked
about the practice of polygamy as if it is something new in Liberia; and in
their anger towards Taylor, and they failed to acknowledge its legal
existence in Liberia. That’s our concern!
For the purpose of
providing the facts, find below a particular case in which the Liberian
legislature passed an act in 1882 making polygamy legal:
“…While the practice of
wardship was analogous to established concept of apprenticeship and could be
justified by the principles of the settler standard, the sexual liaisons
implicit in African offers of women to settler men was quite a differ
matter. This intimate channel of interaction, once begun, continued as a
locally accepted custom of informal polygamy in the upriver settlements.
Settler men, both married and single, had sexual relationships outside the
bonds of lawful, Christian marriage. Outside wives and children created
significant kinship ties between Africans and settlers. Sexual liaisons of
this nature had repercussions on the settler family and strained the ideal
of Christian monogamy, however. In 1893, for instance, Patsey Gordon, of
Caldwell, filed for divorce from her husband, Albert J. Gordon, charging
that in 1887 he had deserted her to live in adultery with Guarnyer Baebo, a
Vai woman, thus contravening his marital obligations. Five years earlier
(1882) the Liberian legislature had moved to recognize the obvious
consequences of informal polygamy by passing an act providing uniform
procedures to legitimate children born outside lawful wedlock. The act
recognized in law an existing social practice. It protected the
settle-family structure by establishing the means for incorporating outside
children…” (Tom W. Shick, Behold the Promised Land: A History of
Afro-American Settler Society in the Nineteenth-Century Liberia, p.
100)
Let it be stated here
that this law was put in place sorely to legitimize the children the
settlers had with African Liberians women. As for the natives (Liberians of
ethnic background), they did not need any “legislative act” to legalize
their relationship and their children. Based on their culture, any child
born into this world is legitimate – a general practice in Africa.
Moreover, in order to
contribute to the discussion, Nyanseor published an article in the
July/September 1998 issue of The Perspective, in which he
explained the origin and the reasons polygamous marriage was adopted
as the legitimate form of marriage in Liberia. The title of that article is:
“Polygyny (Polygamy) Is Already A Practice”. In that article, Nyanseor
explained:
“…From
our understanding of culture, it is safe to say that one of the key
responsibilities of culture is the establishment of social institutions
which will maintain the orderly existence of a society. Secondly, these
institutions serve to promote ‘a system of values, and these values are a
set of ideas, concepts, and practices to which strong sentiments are
attached’.
“In view of the above,
one can easily understand how polygyny became the ideal institution of
marriage in Africa. However, the rationale given for the practice of
polygyny in Africa is provided by two schools of thought - the Social and
Economic schools. Proponents of the Social School explained that at the time
polygyny was established as the legal form of marriage, the ratio of women
to men in Africa was about 10 to 1. As the result, those who were
responsible for establishing social institutions - the elders, including
women, decided to come up with a marriage system that would address this
problem. Their aim at the time was to provide a balance and equal
distribution of social, material, security and economic benefits to both
women and men.
“Furthermore, these
social architects or elders felt that if the problem regarding the needs of
unmarried women were not addressed, what would eventually happen was the
snatching away of other women's husbands, or the unmarried women would, for
example, engage in prostitution since as human beings, their sexual, social,
psychological and economic needs had to be taken care of.
“On the other hand, the
proponents of the Economic School reasoned that polygyny was established to
address the prevailing economic issues of the period. They explained that
during the Pre-colonial era in Africa, the economic activities were centered
on subsistence agriculture. This type of farming requires lots of manpower.
In order to establish the mode of production that was going to be beneficial
to the entire society, the polygynous form was preferred; since this form of
marriage emphasized collective responsibilities, communal ownership of
farms, wealth and the economic benefits are to the advantage of extended
family.
“The major concept of
both the Social and the Economic Schools was centered around the male
marrying more than one wife depending on the amount of dowry (bridal price)
he or his family could afford. In the traditional African society where this
arrangement was prevalent, a man who had four wives, was obligated to
provide farm for each of his wives. The children and the relatives of each
wife were required to work and attend to the operation and maintenance of
the farm. The husband on the other hand, was responsible in providing
periodic assistance as well as supervision to each farm.
“The resources derived
from these farms were pooled together to provide material and economic
benefits for the entire extended family. With this type of arrangement, all
members of the extended family were better cared for”.
This brings us to
another point in the continued assault on the cultural tradition of African
Liberians. For instance, as far as we can remember, when we were growing up
in Monrovia and upcountry, the display of female breast was sanctioned by
traditional society as a sign of beauty. Many of us grew up around our
grandmothers’, mothers’, aunts’ and sisters’ breasts exposed in our homes
and the community without thinking it was inappropriate, until the
missionaries from abroad (Europe and America) said it was nudity, therefore,
wrong. Then they became to impose their cultural practices on us, forgetting
that it was God who first sanctioned this cultural practice, until Satan
fooled the first family, Adam and Eve to considered God’s intended display
of beauty, shameful.
Since these
missionaries were unsuccessful in changing these practices in our homes and
compound, they started with the young children entrusted in their care at
the mission schools operated by them. Instead of educating them, they also
imposed their cultural hegemony on these children. As the result of this
indoctrination, children who at one time were proud of their culture and
language became ashamed and resentful of their language and cultural
practices. Their generation, and generation after them became “civilized” (kwii,
a Liberian description of civilize). It was these people, missionaries,
Americo-Liberians as well as African Liberian wards who established the
paradigm or standards that is followed today by which almost all African
Liberians’ cultural traditions are judged negatively.
In retrospect,
tradition starts and changes overtime if not it dissipates. For example, the
original sin which, Adam as head of the human family committed, and then
blamed on Eve, whom he said, "The woman you put here with me --she gave me
some fruit from the tree and I ate it." God then said to Eve: "I will
greatly increase your pains in childbearing; with pain you will give birth
to children. Your desire will be for your husband and he will rule over
you." And to Adam He said: "Because you listened to your wife and ate from
the tree.... Cursed is the ground because of you; through painful toil you
will eat of it all the days of your life..."
This Christian
conception of the creation of Adam and Eve is narrated in Genesis 2:4-3:24.
God prohibited both of them from eating the fruits of the forbidden tree
planted in the middle of the Garden. The serpent seduced Eve to eat from it
and Eve, in turn, seduced Adam to eat it with her. When God rebuked Adam for
what he did, he put the blame on Eve. The punishment God prescribed for Adam
and Eve is to work and bear children in order to continue God’s creation by
populating the earth. This punishment is not a reward. In pure and simple
language, the SEX or intimacy involved was not intended for pleasure or
enjoyment. For violating God’s Law, He intended for Adam and Eve (the first
family) to continue His creation – populate the earth with human beings, who
will then take care of His paradise, using the “free will” He gave to MAN
(male and female) to make decisions. But MAN being used to having his own
way, decided to take matters into his/her own hands by deviating from God’s
original plan for which He had intended for us. As the result, throughout
the ages, various cultures began to experiment with sexual relationships,
dictated by the period in which they live. Overtime, practices that were
once considered taboo become the acceptable practice. These new practices
are either from within the local cultures/traditions or influenced by an
outside dominant culture.
For example, sex
during our grandparents and parents generation was performed differently,
compared to ours, today. During those periods, sexual intimacy was for the
purpose of procreation – to beget children that will continue the human
race. The most common or preferred sexual position at the time was the
so-called “Missionary Position” (the male partner on top of the female). It
was a taboo for the female to perform sexual act the other way around (the
female on top). Furthermore, one would have been considered sick or out of
their mind to suggest or engage in oral sex because it was the acceptable
practice. That’s the way society operates – be it European or African.
Society sanctions behaviors!
Brief History of Female
Circumcision
Now, let’s proceed with
the discussion of
Female Circumcision.
However, in order to discuss it with some understanding, let’s first review
a brief history of Female Circumcision so as to find out its social and
economic relevance in societies that practice it. Female Circumcision is
sometimes referred to as Female Genital Mutilation (FGM). This procedure
involves cutting away the female’s external genitalia, which usually
includes the clitoris and surrounding skin (labia minora). The remaining
edges are sewn together, which leaves only a small opening for urination and
menstruation. (Rod Plotnik, Introduction to Psychology (Fifth Edition)
“Worthwhile Tradition or Cruel Mutilation?” p. 346, 1999)
The term FGM covers
three varieties of genital mutilations, and they are:
1.
Sunna Circumcision – consists of the removal of the prepuce and/or
the tip of the clitoris. Sunna in Arabic means “tradition”;
2.
Clitoridectomy (also referred to as excision) – consists of the
removal of the entire clitoris (both prepuce and glands). And the removal of
the adjacent labia, and
3.
Infibulation (also referred to as pharaonic circumcision) – This is
the most extreme form. It consists of the removal of the clitoris, the
adjacent labia (majora and minora), and the joining of the scraped sides of
the vulva across the vagina, where they are secured with thorns or sew with
catgut or thread. A small opening is kept to allow passage of urine and
menstrual blood.
An
infibulated woman must be cut open to allow intercourse on the wedding night
and is closed again afterwards to secure fidelity to the husband. (Mariannie
Sarkis Female Genital Mutilation,
www.hamp.hampshire.edu/~mnbF94/whatis.FGM.html - 1995)
Circumcision of the
female is not a new subject. Early writings testified that this practice
was known and discussed by physicians of the Roman Empire. Bryk in 1935
compiled a comprehensive book on the history and practice of female
circumcision. The 265 references abstracted in the text covered the
circumcision of the female from the ancient Egyptian era (approximately 1500
B.C.) to the present day. The value of this procedure in improving function
has been accepted by various cultures for the past 3,500 years (W.G.
Rathmann, M.D., Female Circumcision: Indications and a New Technique-
www.noharmm.org/femcirctech.htm)
As a matter of fact, in
Europe and the United States, clitoridectomy was performed in the nineteenth
century to treat epilepsy, hysteria, insanity, and masturbation. For
example, France, Sweden, England, and Australia
are among the countries reported to have practiced female circumcision.
(Emphasis is ours).
FGM in a variety of its
forms is practiced in Middle Eastern countries (the two Yemens, Saudi
Arabia, Iraq, Jordan, Syria, and Southern Algeria). In Africa, FGM is
practiced in Kenya, Nigeria, Mali, Upper Volta, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Egypt,
Mozambique, Sudan, etc. In Africa and the Middle East, Muslims, Coptic
Christians, members of various indigenous groups, Protestants, and Catholics
perform some form of FGM. Also, it has been estimated that more than 30
countries in Africa still practice FGM, and even more in the Middle East,
and Asia. In Somalia and Djibouti, 98% of girls have had FGM. The estimate
worldwide, are from 100 to 114 million women and girls. (Statistics,
www.arts.unimelb.edu)
The Cultural Basis for
the Practice of FGM in Liberia
What is the cultural
basis or the reasons given for the circumcision of females? Let us look at
Liberia for example. Seven ethnic groups in Liberia (Kpelle, Bassa, Vai,
Dan, Ma, Dei and Gola) practice female circumcision. The practice is part
of their cultures and traditions passed on by their ancestors. Female
circumcision is part of the curriculum of two Political, Social and
Educational institutions. These institutions are the Poro and Sande. The
Poro School is exclusively for males while the Sande is for females. Both
schools are institutions of learning. Generally, both the Poro and Sande
schools regulate conduct that pertained specifically to their operations as
religious and educational institutions. The activities that are regulated
and supervised are indigenous medical practitioners, including social,
political, and economic practices. The senior members of these institutions
judged disputes between high-ranking members of the community, and they
either give or withhold support for the chief in policy matters affecting
the community as a whole. (Thomas D. Roberts, et al, Area Handbook
for Liberia, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1972,
pp. 71-73)
Furthermore, the Poro
and Sande institutes provide instructions in the areas of building, road
construction, sanitation, midwifery, home economics, arts and crafts, music
and drama, leadership, government, law (rules) and military skills. Male and
female circumcisions are part of the curriculum of these institutions. These
institutions are referred to as secret societies because their meetings and
rituals are held in secrecy. Nonmembers are not allowed to attend their
meetings. And when decisions required execution, they are often done in
secret. The time spent in training varies among the ethnic groups. But the
average time is about two to three years. (Ibid. p. 72)
Unlike Nyanseor who is
of the Klao (Kru) ethnic group, Dr. Coleman is of the Gola ethnic group in
Liberia, one of the ethnic groups that practice female circumcision. Based
on our research and Dr. Coleman’s personal experience and observation
regarding female circumcision, the kind of female circumcision that the
Sande institute performed does not involved the removal of the entire
clitoris (both prepuce and glands); the joining and scraping the sides of
the vulva across the vagina, and securing it with thorns or sewing it with
catgut or thread. Africans of the Islamic faith and Middle Eastern countries
practice these forms of FGM, However, the procedure practiced by the Sande
too, has its own problems, and those problems will be addressed in this
article.
There are several
reasons given for the practice of the various types of female circumcisions.
According to Dr. W.G. Rathmann, the procedure is done due to two common
abnormalities:
“The two common problems
that make the highly sensitive area of the clitoris unable to be stimulated
are phimosis and redundancy. Sebaceous glands about sic (above) the
clitoris attempt to prevent adhesions of the prepuce to it. This sometimes
fails and the clitoris is tightly adherent to the prepuce. This defect is
recorded as 1 plus or 25 per cent of the normal surface adherent, to 4 plus
or complete coverage. A prepuce for the protection of the clitoris is
normal and useful, but if it is excessive and extends past the eminence of
clitoris it can prevent contact and is harmful”. (W.G. Rathmann, M.D.,
Female Circumcision: Indications and a New Technique –
www.noharmm.org/femcirctech.htm)
There are many other
“reasons” for these practices. For example, in some cultures, a girl who is
not circumcised is considered “unclean” by local villagers and therefore
unmarriageable. Furthermore, a girl who does not have her clitoris removed
is considered a great danger and ultimately fatal to a man if her clitoris
touches his penis (Mariannie Sarkis Female Genital Mutilation,
www.hamp.hampshire.edu/~mnbF94/whatis.FGM.html - 1995) Evelyn
Shaw, RN, MS, advances five basic reasons for the practice of female
circumcision. She says that the interpretation of the rationale for female
circumcision varies, depending on the background and culture of the
researcher. The most common reasons postulated according to her are:
economic factors, sexual control, and positive effects on childbirth,
religious beliefs and traditional, and cosmetic and curative effects.
(Evelyn Shaw, Female Circumcision, American Journal of Nursing,
June 1985, p. 686). Let’s start with the economic factors.
Economics
Economically, female
circumcision is especially important in societies that are patrilineal and
agrarian. The continuation of the patriarchal system is assured where
infibulation is practiced since the new bride’s virginity is visibly
guaranteed by “the chastity belt of the flesh” and therefore, succession and
inheritance of property cannot be questioned. Marriage contract transfers
sexual rights as well as rights to the father of the bride to the
bridegroom. Proof of virginity is an important prerequisite to this
transaction. Since an uncircumcised woman would not be considered
marriageable – the only viable future for most of these women – many parents
see is to have their daughters circumcised. Circumcision is an important
source of income for those involved in its performance; therefore, such
people have a vested interest in perpetuating the practice.
Sexual Control
Female circumcision is
believed to reduce sexual desire and vulnerability to sexual temptation; it
is used to reinforce the woman’s passive-receptive role. Excision of the
clitoris is also believed to remove the masculine element in the young girl
and prevent the organ from growing and thus increasing her desire and
capacity for sex – which may not be matched by her husband’s. In many areas
too much sex is considered bad for the husband. Furthermore, since a man is
often allowed more than one wife, reduced sexual desire in wives is
considered necessary. Some groups also believe that the clitoris contains a
poison-like substance that can harm the husband. One researcher reports
that in Australia, some tribes remove the prepuce from the clitoris to
reduce frigidity.
Effects on Childbirth
In many countries where
female circumcision is practiced, infant mortality is extremely high. Some
cultures believe that if the clitoris touches the baby’s head during
childbirth the infant will die. Others think if a nursing mother has
intercourse the sperm will contaminate the mother’s milk and the baby will
become sick.
Religious Beliefs and
Tradition
Both religious and
traditional beliefs are key contributing factors to the practice of female
circumcision. In some cultures, the surgery has been handed down from
ancient puberty rites. But the belief in female circumcision is not limited
to any one religion. In some areas of Africa, Christians, Muslims, and
Jews practice some form of female circumcision. Some anthropologists
believed that the practice may have been a primitive effect to prevent evil
spirits from entering the vagina. [emphasis ours]
Cosmetic or Curative
Effects
In many of the countries
in which female circumcision is practiced, the clitoris is considered ugly
and something that impedes intercourse. It is not unusual to hear that “a
woman should be smooth and a man lumpy.” As indicated earlier,
clitoridectomy was performed in Europe and the United States in the
nineteenth century to treat epilepsy, hysteria, insanity, and masturbation
[emphasis ours] (Ibid. p. 686). Even today, tattoo parlors are
abundant in every western country engaging in female’s clitoris piercing,
inner labia piecing, outer labia piecing, triangle piecing, hood piecing,
breast torture, play piercing of the breasts, men’s’ penis piecing. Also
included are whole body tattooing, tongue splitting, male genital breading,
piecing of nose, tongue, lip, nipple, naval, genital piercing, and
implantation of small objects under the skin of the shaft of the penis;
piercing of the male genitals (apadravya, frenum, guiche, etc.). see
(http://www.bmezine.com/pierce/10-female/
http://www.bmezine.com/pierce/10-female/, Evelyn Shaw, Female
Circumcision, American Journal of Nursing, June 1985, p. 686)
Problems Associated with
the Practice of Female Circumcision
What are some of the
problems associated with the practice of female circumcision? Apart from the
(social, economic, religious, cosmetic and traditional) reasons given for
the practice of female circumcision, there are several medical problems
associated with the practice. Paramount among them is, they are immediate
and long-term complications. Some of the immediate complications are:
hemorrhage, at times leading to hypovolumic shock, dehydration as result of
water restriction following the surgery. Another major component is
contacting infections. It can be very grave, and at many times causing
septicemia or Tetanus. Tetanus is a very devastating complication that
commonly occurred as the direct result of the use of unsterilized surgical
instruments and materials for the performance of female circumcision. (Mariannie
Sarkis Female Genital Mutilation
www.hamp.hampshire.edu/~mnbF94/whatis.FGM.html - 1995).
Some of the long-term
complications include sexual frigidity, genital malformation, delayed
menarche, chronic pelvic inflammatory disease, recurrent urinary retention
and infection, vesico vaginal fistulae and an entire range of obstetrical
and gynecological complications, thus exposing the fetus to a range of
infectious diseases as well as facing the risk of having the baby’s head
crushed in the damaged birth canal. In such cases, the infibulated mother
must undergo another operation whereby she is “opened” further to insure the
safe birthing of her child (Ibid. p. 2).
According to SI-KATA’s
Mission Statement, the year (1999) as every year, an estimated two million
girls are candidates for genital mutilation: one child every five minutes.
Of this shocking number, 15 % die as a direct result of this practice.
Those who survive, usually suffer for years with chronic pain and
infections, hemorrhaging, bladder, urinary and kidney disorders, extreme
complications during pregnancy and sexual intercourse, and a loss of sexual
sensitivity. (Marisa N. Bocci, SI-KATA Mission Statement)
Most Female Genital
Mutilations (FGM) are done in unsanitary conditions in which a midwife uses
unclean sharp instruments such as razor blades, scissors, kitchen knives,
and pieces of glass. These instruments are frequently used on several girls
in succession and are really cleaned, causing the transmission of a variety
of viruses such as the HIV virus, and other infections. Antiseptic
techniques and anesthesia are generally not used, or for that matter, heard
of. This is akin to a doctor who uses the same surgical instrument on a
number of women at the same time without cleaning any of them. (Mariannie
Sarkis Female Genital Mutilation,
www.hamp.hampshire.edu/~mnbF94/whatis.FGM.html
– 1995)
Beyond the initial pains
of the operation, FGM has long-term physiological, sexual, and psychological
effects. The unsanitary environment under which FGM takes place results in
infections of the genital and surrounding areas and often results in the
transmission of the HIV virus that can cause AIDS. Some of the other health
consequences of FGM include primary fatalities as a result of shock,
hemorrhage or septicemia. (Ibid.)
To further emphasize
these medical concerns, International Model Waris Dirie and Garba Diallo
are
worth referencing here. According to Waris Dirie:
“Mama positioned me on
the rock. She sat behind me and pulled my head against her chest, her legs
straddling my body. I circled my arms around her thighs. She placed a
piece of root from an old tree between my teeth. ‘Bite on this.’ I was
frozen with fear. ‘This is going to hurt!’ I mumbled over the root.
“Mama leaned over
whispered, ‘Try to be a good girl, baby. Be brave for Mama, and it’ll go
fast.’ I peered between my legs and saw the gypsy, the old women looked at
me sternly, and a clear look in her eyes, then foraged through an old
carpetbag. She reached inside with her long fingers and fished out a broken
razor blade. I saw dried blood on the jagged edge. She spit on it and
wiped it on her dress. While she was scrubbing, my world went dark as Mama
tied a blindfold over my eyes.
“The next thing I felt
was my flesh being cut away. I heard the blade sawing back and forth through
my skin. The feeling was indescribable. I didn’t move, telling myself the
more I did, the longer the torture would take. Unfortunately, my legs began
to quiver and shake uncontrollably of their own accord, and I prayed,
please, God, let it be over quickly. Soon it was, because I passed out.”
(Reader’s Digest, “Silent No More,” Waris Dirie & Cathleen Miller, June
1999, p. 192)
According to
Garba Diallo, “…There
was no anesthesia. We were kept in the bush for one month and had a camp
leader who taught us almost everything about life in our community and that
we had become men and responsible members of the community. (Garba Diallo,
“Indigenous Learning Forms in West Africa:
The Case of
Mauritania”)
Our Findings
Prior to starting this
research, we were of the opinion that female circumcision was performed only
in Africa and the Middle East. The initial materials we read and those,
with whom we had discussions regarding female circumcision, portrayed and
talked only about the negative aspects of the practice in Africa, Asia and
the Middle East. In most cases, the practice was condemned and the blame
was directed at men, who were seen as the sole benefactors of the practice.
What this approach does – it reinforced the position of those who believe in
the practice.
For example,
those that practice FGM – be it initiation rites, attached high premium to
these traditional cultural practices. According to Dr. John S. Mbiti, "The
blood which is shed during the physical operation binds the person to the
land and consequently to the departed members of his society. It says that
the individual is alive, and that he or she now wishes to be tied to the
community and people, among whom he or she has been born as a child. This
circumcision blood is like making a covenant, or solemn agreement, between
the individual and his people. Until the individual has gone through the
operation, he is still an outsider. Once he has shed his blood, he joins the
stream of his people; he becomes truly one with them. (Mbiti, John S.,
Introduction to African Religion, p. 93, 1975)
What needs to be
considered here is, the history of mankind is the history of stages of
development, which is true of medical technology or any practice for that
matter. For example, if medical practices of the Middle Ages were used
today, they will be considered inhumane and barbaric. As societies advance,
medieval practices were improved upon. The same holds true for African and
Asian societies.
However, we need to be
aware that there are always disingenuous individuals in the waiting to
exploit the negative aspects of a tradition for their own benefit. A
classic case is that of Ms. Regina Danson, a Ghanaian immigrant, who wrote
in her affidavit that, ``…I will be mutilated, and my lover will be found
and executed,'' …after that, I will have to live the rest of my life in
shame.''
This article was
published January 16, 2003 under the headline: “Ghanaian Immigrant
Found Guilty of Lying”. Tom Hayes of the Associated Press wrote the
article. According to the article, Ms. Danson was granted asylum after she
claimed she was a disgraced tribal princess who would face sexual mutilation
if deported to Ghana. The article added, “Her tale of woe outraged the
public and won her support from feminist Gloria Steinem, actress Julia
Roberts and then-first lady Hillary Rodham Clinton. Officials now say the
tale wasn't true. A federal jury in Brooklyn deliberated about five hours
Wednesday before finding Danson, 33, guilty of lying to immigration
officials”.
Recommendation
The compelling facts we
discovered during our research, which for example, showed the effects FGM
has on females, we reached the conclusion that not all-cultural and
traditional practices are of benefit to the people they professed to
benefit. In view of the above, we support changing those aspects of a
culture or tradition that have been proven harmful and those that prevent an
individual from making a choice in matters that affect his/her well-being.
Equally so, we support those cultural and traditional practices that have
helped or will help to improve humanity. Nonetheless, for such a culture or
tradition to remain relevant, it has to be flexible enough to incorporate
new realities, without which it will be seriously opposed. On the other
hand, since it is not an easy task to change behaviors or cultural and
traditional practices, what we would suggest is for those who find problems
with the practice of FGM, is to educate those who practice the procedure
regarding the medical and psychological damage the practice does to females.
Furthermore, due to the
large number of FGM cases and the many deaths the procedure has caused
convinced us to also recommend that these practices be improved upon by
using modern medical technology and techniques if those who practice it
refused to abolish it. In addition, we recognize that the method involved in
performing female circumcision “can only be abolished by a grassroots
approach which would take into consideration all aspects of a particular
culture and try to work within that system of beliefs to eradicate this no
less than torturous practice” (Mariannie Sarkis Female Genital Mutilation,
www.hamp.hampshire.edu/~mnbF94/whatis.FGM.html – 1995). Any
approach short of this, will be like putting gasoline on fire. Because
those who considered female circumcision as a cultural tradition attached
strong sentiments to it, which makes it difficult for them to easily abandon
the practice - this includes women as well.
Throughout this
research, we gained valuable insight and knowledge about FGM. In fact, we
became more aware of the physical and psychological danger associated with
FGM. It is our belief that “Positive Education” is the only way out. By
“Positive Education” we mean, an educational approach that acknowledges the
cultural basis for the practice; an approach that does not only engage in
condemnation but instead, provides medical rationale and education for the
practice to be improved or stopped. With this approach, some successes are
likely to be achieved.
Conclusion
It should not be
mistaken here that the authors of this article are so blind to a tradition
that poses threat and danger to its members, and yet vow to support it at
all cost. That’s not the case here. However, if any institution or practice
is to be evaluated, it must be done on the basis of the positive as well as
the negative; by taking into consideration its history and contributions to
that society. We take this position because every time the issue regarding
polygyny (polygamy) and female circumcision come up for discussion,
the blame is always directed at men. In other words, men are accused of
being the benefactors. In most cases, such conclusion is reached out of
ignorance.
Society cannot
continue to behave in this way – rush to judgment. Westerners are in the
habit of calling for abolishing or closing down traditional practices or
institutions without knowing anything about them. All they know is, it is
not like theirs. Westerners/Americans do not call for abolishing a practice
or closing down a university because one department within the university
has caused some harm to individuals. What is done in this case is, they make
some improvement in the area or solve the problem it poses, and if that
doesn’t work, then that area will not be accredited; but they do not close
down or abolish the entire institution or university due to the problem it
caused. Why isn’t the same approach or rule applied when it involves African
cultural, social and political institutions? Here is where our disagreement
or point of departure is! Our position is, the same approach or rule should
be applied when it involved our traditional institutions of learning.
Circumcision of male and female is not the only function for which these
traditional learning centers were envisioned and established. First and
foremost, it would make much sense to call for the improvement of their
method first, and then if that fails, then a recommendation or abolishment
due to the immanent health and safety danger that particular procedure or
method caused, and not the entire institution.
To do otherwise is
absurd. But yet, sometime a ago, the former UN Ambassador Jacques Klein and
some westernized Liberians called for abolishing the Poro and Sande
traditional centers of learning, which is an insult to the Liberian people,
and African people in general. What these individuals failed to realize is –
the functions of these institutions are not limited to the performance of
male and female circumcision. For example, prior to our contact with
westerners, the Kwe Society (Social and Educational Training Institution),
found among the Kwa Speaking Group of Liberia, which includes, the Klao (Kru)
in Rivercess, Bassa (slighting different), Grebo and Krahn, Belle, Dei had a
system in place in which their people were taught various skills and
disciplines.
Unlike the Poro and
Sande institutions, whose schools stay in session from 1 to 3 years, the Kwe
remained in section for either days or weeks of intensive training. The Kwe
societies’ training consisted of obedience to GOD, responsibility to tribe,
family, community, religion, moral, ethics, medicine, such skills as
fishing, hunting, farming, warfare, building, leadership, etc.
Yet, “Cultural
institutions such as the Poro and the Sande have been bastardized beyond
recognition, robbed of their substance as once authority entities which
brought cohesion and security for many peasants and rural dwellers. To
ensure that these institutions fall within the President's [Taylor] psyche
of lawlessness and disorder, Taylor recently ordered all cabinet ministers
to join these societies even if the ministers harbour no beliefs in them.
But as all ministers failing to attend a prayer service were dismissed and
later rehired, anyone refusing to obey such orders not only loses his/her
job, but also must flee the country to avoid other charges, as was the case
with leader of the Senate and member of the president's party who escaped to
the US following disagreements with President Taylor”, wrote Tom Kamara of
the New Democrat.
In short, we
must all take a Sankofa journey to increase our awareness, understanding and
sensitivity towards each other. To make this world a better place, we must
go back to our
roots in order to move forward. By reaching back in the past, we could
gather the best of what our past has to teach us, so that when we achieve
our full potential as we move forward, whatever we have lost, forgotten,
forgone or stripped of, can be reclaimed, revived, improve upon, preserved
and perpetuated in the cause of peace, love and understanding among the
races.
Bibliography
Bocci, Marisa N., SI-KATA Mission Statement.
Diallo, Garba, Indigenous Learning Forms
in West Africa:
The Case of
Mauritania
Dirie, Waris & Miller,
Cathleen, Reader’s Digest, “Silent No More”, June 1999.
Idowu, E. Bolaji, African Traditional
Religion: A Definition. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1975.
Mariannie Sarkis Female Genital Mutilation,
www.hamp.hampshire.edu/~mnbF94/whatis.FGM.html - 1995.
Mbiti,
John S., Introduction to African Religion. Praeger: New York, 1975.
Mazrui, Ali A., The
African Condition. New York: University of Cambridge, 1980.
Nyanseor, Siahyonkron, “Polygyny (Polygamy) Is Already A Practice”.
Published in the July/September Edition of The Perspective.
Plotnik, Rod, Introduction to
Psychology (Fifth Edition). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company,
1999.
Rathmann, M.D., W.G.,
Female Circumcision: Indications and a New Technique –
www.noharmm.org/femcirctech.htm.
Roberts, et al, Thomas D., Area Handbook for Liberia, Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1972.
Shaw, Evelyn, “Female Circumcision”, American Journal of Nursing, June 1985.
Statistics,
www.arts.unimelb.edu.
Wagler, Charles, “Culture” Grolier
Interactive Multimedia Encyclopedia Compact Disc. Grolier Interactive Inc.,
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS:
Mr. Siahyonkron Nyanseor is employed with the Georgia Department
of Human Resources - Georgia Regional Hospital at Atlanta - as a Mental
Health/Developmentally Disabled (MH/DD) Clinical Team Leader as well as a
QMRP (Qualified Mental Retardation Professional). For the past 30 years, Mr.
Nyanseor has worked in the field of Mental Health/Mental Retardation as an
Instructor, Behavior Specialist and Administrator. Currently, Mr. Nyanseor
is the Chairman of the Liberian Democratic Future (LDF), Inc., a non-profit,
non-partisan think-tank democratic and research organization. LDF is the
publisher of The Perspective web newsmagazine. He is a founding member and
Treasurer of the Liberian History, Education & Development, Inc. (LIHEDE), a
nonprofit organization. Also, Mr. Nyanseor is a founding member and the
eleventh President (1986-1988) of the Union of Liberian Associations in the
Americas, Inc. (ULAA). Mr. Nyanseor can be contacted at:
Snyanseor@aol.com
James Mamoo Coleman,
MD, is a
Liberian physician. Currently, he lives and works in the Atlanta
metropolitan area. Prior to relocating to the United States, he worked at
the John F. Kennedy Medical Hospital in Monrovia, following his internship
at the same hospital. Dr. Coleman had a one-year of rural service at the
Ganta United Methodist Hospital in Nimba County. Also, he served for one
year as the Medical Director for the Liberian Government Hospital,
Tubmanburg, Bomi County. He is a former assistant Professor of Dermatology
at the A.M. Dogliotte College of Medicine of the University of Liberia, and
a consultant of Dermatology at the John F. Kennedy Medical Hospital,
Monrovia, Liberia. Dr. Coleman can be contacted at:
kula35@walmartconnect.com
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